A summary of existing research
Reconciling practice and doctrine
Statements about
non-Tantric Buddhism
Canonicity and non-Buddhist religions
Buddhism underpinning efficacy
Eliade: coincidentia oppositorum
BuddhistBuddhist Tantrism[1]
draws its theology mostly from non-Tantric Buddhism, and its practices from
broader Tantric activity. This has led to conflicts: Tantric practices
contravened the injunctions of the PaliPàli canon and of Mahàyàna tradition. Here, I
outline some of the strategies which the authors of BuddhistBuddhist TantraTantras used to overcome
this divergence, and more widely to justify Tantric practices.
The size of the Tantric literature makes an
exhaustive study impossible. Most of the examples here are taken from the HevajraHevajra
tantraTantra,
the Guhyasamàaja
tantraTantra,
the vajrabhairavaVajrabhairava tantraTantra and the MVTMahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi Tantra,
and their commentaries as appropriate. A thorough study of this limited corpus
has enabled me to assess the relative importance of the various strategies of
legitimation, and how the portfolio of strategies varies according to time,
school, and situation. I have also included examples from other Tantric texts,
taken either from the secondary literature, or from non-exhaustive readings of
the texts themselves. These sources illustrate a wider range of techniques, but
the price is that I cannot assess the importance of each technique.
I ask what these strategies of legitimation can
tell us about Tantric buddism and its environment. -audience, aims, knowledge
of Buddhist corpus. I also consider the
relations of my analysis with a wider literature discussing the intellectual
history of religion: how do Vajrayàna strategies of legitimation differ from
those used in other religions, and what do these differences tell us about the
nature and context of Tantric Buddhism? I conclude with a summary of my
findings, and an exploration of their implications for future research.
[outline order of the essay. Glossary for terms]
Some work on syncretism and conflict in Indian religions is relevant
to the topic at handTantric.
There has been considerable examination of
the historical development of Indian religion, and of borrowings between
traditions. Some of these have a bearing on the history of tantrismTantrism, such as the work
of Jean Przyluski [1950] on the development of goddess cults under the
influence of local and pre-Aryan religion, and the work of Bolle [1971:22-38] on the influence of pre-Aryan culture on various later traditions[2], and notes[1971:27-34] on the persistence within several traditions
of 'yakùas'[3],Tantric. However, even when these
studies have a bearing on the history of tantrismTantrism, they rarely give
much attention to the techniques used to legitimise it.
. However, Bethia Beadman [2003] has
recently analysed strategies of conflict resolution in Indian religions. She
finds three methods by which conflicts are resolved: individualism,
internalisation, and a dissolution of duality. Of these, the dissolution of
duality is the most prevalent in Vajrayàna texts, and will be discussed as part
of the strategy of reversal. Her other two concepts are, in Tantric Buddhism,
mostly approached by means of symbolism. They are quite commonly used tactics
in commentaries which are embarrassed by the transgressive rituals of their
root text, and so find an internalised meaning for them.
I also make some use of the work of Mircea Eliade [1985; see also Phillips,
1986]. Eliade is concerned with the comparative study of religion worldwide.
However, much of his work concerns India, and his theories are intended to be
universally applicable. In particular, I adopt his idea of the 'coincidentia
oppositorum', an mystical experience arising from awareness of the unity of
contradictory ideas. This provides a partial explanation for those texts which
highlight their contradictions with orthodoxy, rather than trying to explain
them away. David McMahon [1998] has also written on strategies of legitimation
in Mahàyàna Buddhism. However, he is mostly concerned with the transition from
oral to written texts, a shift which was less important to Tantric Buddhism,
since it had already taken place[4].
Studies of tantrismTantrism itself have
suffered from major impediments. Many key texts were not readily available, let
alone edited or translated. Moreover those which have been available are
frequently cryptic, since they assume that a guru will be available to
elucidate the text. More seriously, some practices have disagreed with the
sensibilities of more conservative scholars. So, B. Faddegon considered that
'we may regard this ÷aktism as an epidemic and social neurosis; as such it is
not without significance for neurology' [quoted in Bolle, 1977: 3]. EJ Thomas
was similarly nervous about the sexual content: 'It [tantrismTantrism] consists in
giving a religious significance to the facts of sex. Such a development, at
least in a certain stage of society, is not necessarily immoral. Its
discussion, however, belongs to medical psychology' [quoted in Bolle, 1977: 3]. The result was a lack of attention given to
Tantric studies.
The literature frequently considers two
intertwined questions which have a bearing on strategies of legitimation,
namely the origin of Tantric Buddhism, and the extent to which it diverges from
other forms of Buddhism.
As for origin, D RueggsRuegg [1964] has considered
the ways in which Buddhism was influenced by 'le substrat religieux' (sp?), a basis of
common, pre-existing practices which also influenced Hinduism. The twoBoth are: 'religions qui ploangent leurs raciness dans le mˆme fonds commun et dont les divinites peuvent par consequent avoir des noms et des nombreux traits
communs' [1964:84]. He notes that incorporation of alien gods was already
taking place in the PaliPàli Canon, where the lLalitavistara
and the Ddivyàvadana
incorporate non-BuddhistBuddhist deities. He goes on to analyse the Mma¤ju÷rãmålakalpa and the Kkàraõóanjåha (sp?,), and considers the
significance of Tantric iconography which shows trampled Hindu gods.
Poussin (1898:174-5) considers that BuddhistBuddhist tantrismTantrism was tantrismTantrism first, and then
became Buddhism. Snellgrove [1987:117] concurs, writing that 'the conversion of
Tantric rituals to orthodox BuddhistBuddhist use', was 'dependent on other Indian
religious movements'.
This
issue of origin is connected with legitimation strategies insofar as it affects
the audience. If Tantrism came first, we would expect to see more effort
devoted to justifying the incorporation of BuddhistBuddhist ideas within tantrismTantrism. Conversely, if
Buddhism came first, we would expect an attempt to justify Tantric practices to
a BuddhistBuddhist audience. In
practice, it may be hard to distinguish these two aims in a text. A clear
example of the latter would be the Ssona÷ri
commentary to the Vvajramahàbhairava
tantraTantra,
which appears aimed at orthodox BuddhistBuddhists. As Siklos [1996:19] writes,
"it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the Buddhicising of the texts is
as much a priority as its exegesis". The same tendency to make orthodox
appears in other commentaries. The root texts tend to be more ambiguous, but
show more concern about justifying Buddhism to Ttantrists than they do about
justifying tantrismTantrism to BuddhistBuddhists. This is, then,
weak evidence in support of the idea that BuddhistBuddhist ideas were added
to an existing Tantric framework, and that the resulting BuddhistBuddhist tantraTantras were made less
disturbing to orthodox BuddhistBuddhists by commentators. [todo: should
this go in the conclusion?]
Turning to the question of which aspects of tantrismTantrism can be considered BuddhistBuddhist, several scholars
have attempted to draw a line between doctrine which is BuddhistBuddhist and practice which
is not. Bolle [1971:39] argues that tantrismTantrism should be thought of as a religious
movement in history, rather than as a doctrinal system - that is, not as a religion, but as an
approach to religion. Alexis Sanderson makes a similar distinction,
although he considers the specifically BuddhistBuddhist element to be not doctrine as a
whole, but, more narrowly,
soteriology and cosmology. By
this more precise definition, Sanderson allows for the contradiction between orthodox and Tantric
Buddhism in terms of ethics. He writes:Doctrines of ethics, needless to
say, were completely overturned in Tantric Buddhism.
'My view is that everything
concrete in this system is non-BuddhistBuddhist in origin, that everything abstract
is of BuddhistBuddhist origin, and that
the whole is so constructed and encoded that is [sic] nonetheless entirely BuddhistBuddhist in its function,
even though the scope of what Buddhism can be expected to achieve for an
individual haahs
been extended in certain respects' [Sanderson, 1994:7]
"[Tantrism is] distinguishable from the rest
of Buddhism principally by its ritual character, only secondarily by
soteriological doctrine, and hardly at all by specific theories of ultimate
reality". [Sanderson, 1994:2]
This analysis is broadly supported by the
texts I have examined. However, it is not a complete explanation. The fact that aspects of early Buddhism have been incorporated
into Vajrayàna does not necessarily show their similarity. In many cases it
shows the opposite - the incorporation of elements of a rival school is a way
of showing its inferiority. Moreover, dDoctrine and practice are not two separate
spheres. Tantric rituals may involve sexual intercourse, the consumption or
sacrifice of human flesh, animal flesh [e.g. VMT:29],
and urine, or murder, in direct contravention of the doctrines laid out in the pàliPàli canon. Conversely,
practice is justified by its doctrinal content. Many rituals are intricate
blends of BuddhistBuddhist ideas and images,
with an aim such as perceiving the self as a Buddha.
Crucially, Tantric practices are often in
direct contravention of earlier BuddhistBuddhist doctrine. Consider how a Hhãnayàana BuddhistBuddhist would react to the
practices required by the YRMYogaratnamàla:
Food and drink should be had as
it comes and not be rejected by thinking in terms of what is acceptable and
what is prohibited. One should not perform the rituals of bathing and cleansing
or avoid vulgar behaviour....He should eat all kinds of meat....He enjoys all
kinds of women having a mind free of all trepidation....He must eat the Five
Nectars [5],
drink liquor made from molasses, eat the poisonous Neem and drink the placental
fluids. He must eat foods which are sour, sweet, bitter, hot, salty,
astringent, rotten, fresh and bloody liquids along with semen. By means of the
awareness of non-dual knowledge there exists nothing inedible. Obtaining
menstrual blood he must place it in a skull-cup and mixing it with phlegm and
mucus, the holder of the Vow must drink it.[6]
[FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:197-9[7]]
This is not an unusual passage - any number
of similar paragraphs could be extracted from the BuddhistBuddhist tantraTantras, enjoining murder,
lying, transgressive sexual intercourse, and any number of equally
controversial activities. I do not intend to debate the extent of the
contradiction between Tantric and non-Tantric Buddhism. I take it for granted
both that mantrayànaMantrayàna is in some way BuddhistBuddhist, and that it in
some way conflicts with non-Tantric Buddhism. My concern is with how mantrayànaMantrayàna texts and
practices negotiate that divide, and justify their status within the BuddhistBuddhist religion.
The tantraTantras themselves, and in particular their
commentaries, recognise and attempt to overcome this conflict with orthodoxy.
As an example, consider this worried statement in the YRMYogaratnamàla:
What is the reason for
uncertainties? They are uncertainties because the songs and dance are
considered as unrefined and prohibited [in orthodox BuddhistBuddhist traditions] [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992: 205]
[FwM:208]
I consider five main ways in which BuddhistBuddhist tantraTantras justify their BuddhistBuddhist status. The first
is an explicit approach, of loudly mentioning BuddhistBuddhist schools, BuddhistBuddhist doctrines, and BuddhistBuddhist practices, and
stating the superiority of Buddhism over other religion. Then there is the
attempt to find a place for the Tantric text within the BuddhistBuddhist canon, and among
the other schools. I do not consider here the history of the creation of the
canon, just the textual strategies used to demand a place within the canonit. A third tactic is to
sidestep the question of orthodoxy, and simply to claim greater efficacy in the
ease and speed of liberation offered, and in the granting of magical powers.
Even here, appeals to BuddhistBuddhist ethics and soteriology often lie in
the background, as explanations for the great efficacy of Tantric religion. The
fourth approach is, counter-intuitively, to emphasise the differences by
directly contradicting the teachings of orthodox Buddhism. I draw on three
sources to explain this paradoxical tactic. I adopt from David Snellgrove the
term 'Reversal', and an explanation based around the history of doctrinal
development. From Mircea Eliade I develop an explanation in terms of the
mystical experience of the 'coincidentia oppositorum', the reconciliation of
paradoxical ideas. And from NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna I take the idea of the satyadvaya,
the two levels of truth (the only aspect of this triad which would have been
familiar to practitioners of Vajrayàna). Using these three explanations of
reversals, I show that a text involving reversals legitimises itself in three
ways. The fifth, and probably the most intricate, approach is that of
symbolism. Under this heading I consider the techniques used to create texts
which allow multiple simultaneous interpretations, and suggest meanings on many
levels through numerology, etymology, and the use of code languages. These
patterns of symbolism can be found not only in texts, but also in mantras, mandalamaõóalas, rituals, and
visualisation techniques, and have different features in each case.
......
[todo: what exactly is a 'strategy of
legitimation'?]
The easiest way to demonstrate that you are BuddhistBuddhist is to talk about
Buddhism. For the disciple, a reference
to Buddhism is an education in the theology doctrine which underlies Tantric ritual. To
the orthodox BuddhistBuddhist, it is a comforting confirmation of
the underpinnings of ritual in orthodox theology. Thus any mention of Buddhism
serves a function of legitimation, almost regardless of the actual content.
This is one aspect of all the allusions to Buddhism in the pages that follow,
and I will not comment on it in every instance. A more thorough approach might involve building a
concordance of references, and analysing the frequency with which particular
terms and ideas are used. Such an exercise would fall well beyond the scope of
this dissertation.
Discussions of Buddhist theology form
one subset of these references to Buddhism.
As a result, the tantras frequently mention schools,
doctrines and personalities of orthodox Buddhism. In one sense, at least, the
legitimation is achieved simply by mentioning things that are recognisably Buddhist. Thus a simple
concordance of references might be the best way to understand this aspect of
legitimation strategies. Unfortunately such a listing would not be possible
here, given the limitations of time and space.
Instead, I will simply give a
few examples, and analyse some of their secondary didactic functions. One such
function is education - mentioning other schools helps to elucidate the history
of the religion. Another function is to highlight the similarities between
Tantric and non-Tantric practice, or the place of Tantric Buddhism within the
Tantric world.
BuddhistOf the Buddhist schools and individuals mentioned
in Tantric literature, schools, and occasionally individual figures, are
mentioned in the tantras. Mahàyàna is easily the most prominent form of
Buddhism to be mentioned,. Others are not neglected, but they are given less
prominence and praised less vigorously although others are not
neglected. The hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra
contains a fascinating reference to the schools of Buddhism [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:225]
The sthàvarã school is located in
the centre of creation, for the act of creation is constant and age-old. The
sarvàstivàda school is the centre of essential nature, for its viewpoints
originate from the doctrine regarding the nature of things. The saüvidã school
is in the centre of enjoyment, for the sensation of enjoyment is in the throat.
The mahàsaïghã school is in the centre of great bliss, for great bliss is in
the head [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:225]
The interesting aspect of this is not the mention of
schools, as much as the order given to them - each school has its own place,
which is justified by their doctrines and a nirvacana analysis of their names[8]. They are conceived of as equal and alternative; as
I will explain later[9], this acceptance of multiple
paths is part of a strategy to neutralise condemnation of Tantrism. Tantrism is not mentioned
explicitly in this passage, but the implication is that if all schools have
their merits, so does Vajrayàna
fact that the
commentary has to give basic explanations of the background to these schools
suggests that its audience were not familiar with much of the scholarly history
of Buddhism. It is also interesting that the understanding of the history of
Buddhism is a highly ordered one - each school has its focus, and is acceptable
on its own terms. This can be seen as another example of the idea of multiple
paths discussed elsewhere: this is a listing of many alternative paths.
The literature of Tantrism contains references to almost every doctrine propagated by an
Indian school of Buddhism. I will here list only two, and some of their
implications; I focus on the saïgha, on the doctrine of emptiness (÷unyata).
place of
tantrism within schools
finding of texts
The
idea of the saïgha (the community of believers, one of the 'three
refuges' for a Buddhist) is one which was important
throughout the development of Buddhism, but was transformed and reinterpreted
by each school. There was no sudden reversal in meaning, but rather a gradual
change in connotations
over time. In early buddhism, it simply referred to the community of believers,
consisting of monks and nuns, and male and female lay followers. This was made inappropriate for
later buddhism by a wider change, the shift from remains strong in Tantric
Buddhism. Like everything else, it is redefined
occasionally - the MVT describes it as 'the saïgha of the eight types
of the noble individual'. Moreover, one element of tantrism is a shift from the
communal to the personal. The
saïgha had been, along
with the Buddha and the Dharma, one of the 'three refuges' of the believer - in
other words, community was an almost
essential part of the road to liberation. In Tantric Buddhism, the wider community is
eclipsed in importance by the place of a single guru. We can see the
repercussions of this in the Tantric approach to confession. In theThus
confession, which in the pàliPàli canon this was a matter for the saïgha public affair, a communal confession of sins, a
way of using social pressure to encourage merit among monks. In the Mahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi
Tantra confession
becomes 'in the presence of all the Buddhas and bodhisattvas' [MVT: 417]. The terminology - and hence the
legitimacy - is retained, but the meaning shifts to make allowances for the
social situation. There is a more elaborate reinterpretation of the
saïgha in the hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra:
In fact the body is the school
and the monastery the womb. the embryo comes into existence in the womb by the
release of passion, its enclosing membrane being the ochre robe. The one who
instructs is the mother and the salutation is the birth with hands touching the
head. The rules of conduct are the worldly activities. The recitation of a
mantra is the breathing of ahaü, a being in the centre at the navel and haü in
the centre of great bliss [in the head]. Thus a monk is born, articulating
mantra, naked and with shaven head and face. Having such components all beings
are without doubt enlightened ones [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992: 226 (?)]
The Mahavairocanabhisambodhi Tantra further redefines the saïgha, describing it as 'the saïgha of
the eight types of the noble individual'.
The figure of Nàgàrjuna looms large in terms of
doctrine. His concept of ÷unyata is crucial to many practices. For example in
the Hevajra Tantra, the ritual implement known
as a khañvàïga (a
spear or trident with a human skull attached) 'is conceived of as ֌nyata' [Farrow/Menon, 1992 91]
These two terms, saïgha and ÷unyata, are played
upon throughout Tantric literature. Others are mentioned more fleetingly, such
as the reference to pratãtyasaüutpàda
(dependent co-origination) in the Hevajra Tantra [Farrow/Menon, 1992 49]. Similarly, Buddhist terminology is adopted to understand the
nature of the bodyThe body is analysed in terms of
traditional Buddhist ontology [is this the right
term?]
ùaóindriyaü pa¤caskandhaü
ùaóàyatanaü pa¤cabhåtam svabhàvena vi÷uddham apy aj¤ànakle÷air àvçtam Although
the six sense organs, their six objects, the aggregate of the five components
of phenomenal awareness and the five elements are by their intrinsic nature
pure, they are veiled by ignorance and afflictions. [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:111]
This
traditional terminologyontology
is repeated by statements that there are six sense-objects and six sense-organs
[FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:193-4].
Allusions to earlier Buddhist
doctrines may be much less explicit. Consider the consecration ritual of the Hevajra
Tantra
svasaüvedyàd
bhaved j¤ànaü svaparavittivarjitamkhasamaü virajaü ÷ånyaü bhàvàbhàvàtmakaü
param praj¤opàyavyatimi÷raü ràgàràgavimi÷ritam
From direct personal experience arises this knowledge, free of notions of self
and other, space-like, undefiled, void, the essence of existence and
non-existence and the supreme. This knowlede is a blending of wisdom and means
and a fusion of passion and the absence of passion. [Farrow/Menon, 1992 121-2]
In these words we can trace
allusions to several commonplaces of non-Tantric Buddhism. svasaüvedya, or
personal knowledge, is not an exclusively Buddhist term, by any means. MW finds
svasaüvid in the bhagavata purana meaning 'the knowledge of one's own or the
treu Essence', and svasaüvedana ('knowledge derived from one's self') in
Hemacandra's Yogaֈstra, as well
as in Buddhist literature. svasaüvedya, in the sense of 'inteligible only to
one's self', is found in the ràjataraügiõã, daùakumàracarita and the
pa¤caràtra.
But the word svasaüvedya has much richer and more
particular associations in Buddhist, and particularly màdhyamika, philosophy,
as one of the means of knowledge (pramàna). We can see this clearly in the way
that Bhàvaviveka uses it in his praj¤àpradãpa commentary on Nàgàrjuna's Målamadhyamakakàrikà
18.9. Here, he is defending Nàgàrjuna against the charge of vitaõóà (sophistry
without the establishment of a counter-position). To do so, he claims that
tattva, in the sense of ultimate truth, was known to Nàgàrjuna through direct
experience (svasaüvedya), and that that the fallability of his verbal account
of tattva is not a fault in the form of vitaõóà [Eckel 1978:331].
The Yogaratnamàlà offers
a further explanation, which
ties this orthodox idea down into ritual (which is what is meant by 'direct
personal experience')
svasaüvedyàd iti ata eva
samarasàt svasaüvedyaü j¤ànaü bhavet [Snellgrove, 1959.II:132]
svasaüvedyàt: because of the samarasaü (the flavour of essential similarity
ritual), there should arise knowledge which is from direct personal experience *but yoginis
have 6 extras, the indriyavij¤ànam???wtfw
References to the doctrine of pratãtyasaüutpàda
(dependent co-origination) occur in the hevajra tantra [FwM 49]
The figure of nàgàrjuna looms large in terms of
doctrine. His concept of ÷unyata is crucial to many practices. For example in
the hevajra tantra, the ritual
implement known as a khañvàïga (what exactly is this?) 'is
conceived of as ֌nyata' [FwM 91]
[there is a bit missing here - is
it in the notes]
If a Tantric text could succeed
in being accepted within its followers' conception of the BuddhistBuddhist canon, and within
their mental schema of the schools of Buddhism, then it had would have achieved
a high degree of efficacy. Texts could attempt to achieve this legitimacy by
imitating the style of other canonical texts, by providing an explanation of
their history, or by highlighting a theology of multiple paths of Buddhism,
which allowed Tantric texts to co-exist with their non-Tantric counterparts.
The importance of canonicity
within Buddhism may not have been as great as in other Indian religions, but it
was certainly very significant. If we understand the term 'dharma-kaya' to be a
reference to the body of scriptures, then it is theoretically as important as
the Buddha or the sanghasaïgha. Moreover, as
McMahan [1998] has argued, the importance of written texts had increased with
the greater importance of writing in Mahàyàna Buddhism. Written texts did
indeed replaced the memorisation performed by the monks, and thus had usurped the position of the
sanghasaïgha. But this shift was less important in
Tantric Buddhism, the esoteric nature of which Tantric Buddhism highlighted
the role of the guru. The texts of Vajrayàna were only of any use once the guru
had explained the symbolism, the code language, the performance of the rituals,
and the pronunciation of the mantras. Indeed, Tantric texts could usually only
be read by those who had found a teacher and had undergone initiation. So
strategies focussed on the texts themselves were not as crucial as they were in
MMahàyàna Buddhism. But
legitimation of the texts implied legitimation of the practices, and so
canonicity remained important.
Other forms of Buddhism are accepted to be
valid (albeit inferior) by mantrayanaMantrayàna texts. This approach was based on
a conception that different and conflicting paths could be valid, and thus that
differences between Tantric and non-Tantric Buddhism were unproblematic. The
approach was possible because it had such deep roots in Indian religions of all
kinds. An example would be the incorporation of Buddhism into Hinduism. More
elaborately, the pratyabhij¤àhçdayam of kùemaràja states that the doctrines all
other religions are inferior stages of the pratyabhij¤a system ('tadbhåmikàþ
sarvadar÷anasthitayaþ'), and gives a detailed explanation of how they are all
incorporated into a hierarchy of different paths [pratyabhij¤àhçdayam, såtra 8.
Singh, 1982:65-71]. The use
of this technique in Buddhism took advantage of particular supports drawn from
the doctrine of other schools, The approach is given some specifically Buddhist supports, such
as the concept of the four turnings of the wheel. This was a development of an
earlier scheme of three turnings, namely the original teachings of the Buddha,
the 'perfection of wisdom' literature, and the teaching of emptiness. A fourth
turning was added, to incorporate tantrismTantrism within the scheme. Another doctrine used to defend
multiple paths was the doctrine of the three bodies of the Buddha. As the Guhyasamàjatantra
states, "the
protector [i.e. the Buddha] well taught the three bodies as being different.
Moreover, unity occurs through [Tantric practice]"
The most common arrangement of the multiple
paths in Vajrayàna is even
simpler than this, taking the form of as a distinction drawn between the Ppàramitàyana and the mantrayànaMantrayàna [Snellgrove
1978:118]. Like the earlier distinction between Mahàyàna and hãnayanaHãnayana, this division is
usually one made to enhance the status of one school over the other, although
sometimes there is at least a rhetorical acceptance that they are equal.
A more elaborate scheme is found in the hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra,
where the method for disciplining
'hard to tame, unworthy persons' is:
Fist give them the injunctions
for conduct and then instruct upon the fundamental moral precepts. Then
instruct upon the Vvaibhàùya
doctrine and after that the Ssåtrànta
doctrine. Tthen
instruct upon the yogàcàraYogàcàra doctrine followed by the Mmadhyamaka doctrine.
After teaching all the practices of mantra, then commence with the instruction on the hevajraHevajra practice. Should
the discipline attentively grasp this, he will succeed without doubt. [shit. lost
reference for this!] .
This hierarchy of schools is not an arbitrary
one, but is a scheme which contributes to the performance of rituals. As
Sanderson [1994:2] explains, tantrismTantrism draws on the Mahàyàna doctrine of
niþsvabhàva, in the particular form of yogàcàraYogàcàra-Ssvàtantrika-Mmadhyamaka. This doctrine states that,
at an ultimate level, phenomena are niþsvabhàva, or without any essence, but
that this truth cannot be reached by conventional logic. The highest point
achievable by mere logic is the yogàcàraYogàcàra position of cittamàtra [check
spelling], or 'mind only'. Here, the unreality of the universe is
understood, but it is replaced by a conception of the universe as consisting of
mental projections. The final step to understanding the unreality of the universe requires
meditation on the emptiness of the mind. This meditation is something which is easily
applicable to Tantric meditative practices, which might begin as discriminative thought, but
then ascend to a level beyond this..
TantricThe mantrayànaMantrayàna may be
considered suited for more advanced practitioners. Snellgrove (1987:118-9)
quotes a formulation from the writingstattvaratnà valã
of advayavajra, which accepts non-Tantric Buddhism, but damns it with faint
praise by portraying it as the vehicle for mediocre students: 'It [the Tantric
path] is superior because of freedom from confusion due to singleness of
meaning, because of its many methods, because it is not difficult to do and
because of its suitability for those with keen senses'
Tantric
texts may
copy the style and vocabulary of non-Tantric Buddhism in order to present
themselves as part of the same tradition. A good example of this is the opening
of the hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra.
This It is among many tantraTantras[10]
which open with the words 'evaü mayà ÷rutam' (thus have I heard). In this openingThis is equivalent to 'evam me
suttam', the usual opening of texts in the, it follows the common practice
of the PaliPàli Canon.
[todo: insert bit on maya suttam
openings] [and also of MY texts? - check]
The significance of this form of opening was
as a claim of direct transmission from those who heard the Buddha speaking in
person. In the case of the PaliPàli canon, this was laboriously established
at the First Council. [check details
of this]
This standard interpretation is made explicit
by the gloss of the Yyogaratnamàla:
tad atra kecit ÷rutam ity anena saïgãtiü såcayanti |
anyathà ÷rutiparamparayà ÷rute saügãtir apramàõikã syàt
"with
'÷÷rutam' here the
fact that it was heard by somebody refers to the devotees who heard the
proclamation of the doctrine in bhagavàn's assembly. On the other hand, if the
proclamation of the doctrine was heard through some other orally transmitted
tradition, it would not be considered authoritative. (Farrow/Menon 1992:4)
The Yogaratnamàla goes on to explain that the exact wording emphasises
that 'Thus have I ' has been used in order to exclude
this possibility'. Here the use of the first person pronoun, I, emphasizes the
fact that the writer of this treatise has himself heard this
proclamation of the doctrine in the assembly of devotees and that it was not
heard from a handed-down tradition.'" (Farrow/Menon 1992:4). Other commentaries on Tantric texts
which use the 'evaü mayà ÷rutam' opening gloss
it in more mystical or ritual terms, explaining the power of each of the
syllables.(Farrow/Menon 1992:4)
[but also has a Tantric interpretation]
Buddhism
was not the only source of legitimacy for mantrayànaMantrayàna. There was a
parallel strategy of legitimation with reference to ÷aivism, yogaYoga, and other non-BuddhistBuddhist religion. This used some of the above
techniques, with the twist that the aim was not to demonstrate the Hinduism of
Vajrayàna, but to
explain the Hindu elements as subordinate to the Buddhist.This does not
concern me here, except in its interaction with the techniques of legitimation
by reference to Buddhism. There Is was important to show the
superiority of Buddhism, while allowing for the presence of non-Buddhist beliefs and
deities.
Most Buddhist tantras are peppered
with references to Hindu or other non-Buddhist deities. In a
list of deities which are 'aspects of the undifferentiated nature', we find
that most of the gods are Hindu:
vairocanàkùobhyàmoghà÷
ca ratnàrolika ca sàttvikaþ brahmà viùõuþ ÷ivaþ sarvo vibuddhas tattvam ucyate
brahmà nirvçtito buddhaþ viùaõàd viùõur ucyate ÷ivaþ sadà sukalyàõàt sarvaþ
sarvàtmani sthitaþ satsukhatvena tattvaü ca vibuddho bodhanàt rateþ dehe
saübhavatãty asmàd devateti nigadyate The deities [which are aspects of the
undifferentiated] are known as Vairocana, Akùobhya, Amogha, Ratna, ârolika,
Sàttvika, Brahmà, Viùõu, øiva, Sarva, Vibuddha and Tattva. From being the
release, brahmà is the enlightened one (budhaþ). Viùõu is so called because of
entering. Xiva is so called because of always being auspicious; Sarva, because
of abiding in all things; tattva because of being true bliss; Vibuddha because
of the awareness of erotic bliss. the deity originates in the body and so it is
called devatà
The Hevajra Tantra denies that there is any
release without Buddhism:
samastavedasiddhàntaiþ
karmaprasaraõàdibhiþ siddhir na syàd bhavec chuddhyà punarjananma bhavàntare na
ca tena vinà siddhir iha loke paratra ca na j¤àtaü yena Hevajraü vyarthas tasya
pari÷ramaþ
There is no
accomplishment attained by following all
the Vedas, Siddhànta and traditions of ritual. By following their
purifications, there is rebirth in another cycle of existence. Without this
knowledge there is no accomplishment possible in this or any other world. The
effort of the one who does not know Hevajra is all in vain [Farrow/Menon,
1992:107-8]
Elsewhere, it explains these religions as incomplete understandings
arising from Buddhism:The tantras allow for the
incorporation of non-Buddhist religion, although they do
accord it less respect.
sarvaü vij¤ànaråpaü ca puruùaþ
puràõa i÷varaþ àtmà jãvaü ca sattvaü ca kàlaþ pudgala eva ca sarvabhàvasvàbhàvo
'sau màyàråpã ca saüsthitaþ
The concepts of other traditions such as 'everything has the form of
consciousness' [the vedànta view], 'primordial man' [the sàükhya view],
'supreme being' [the eternal creator of the world, a reference to the siddhànta
tradition], 'self' [non-BuddhistBuddhist traditions which consider it to be
the àtman which is born, dies, and is liberated], 'life-form' [the digaübara
jaina approach], 'pure essence' [the view that sattva is supreme], 'time'[the
view that 'time ripens all elements, time destroys all mankind, it is time that
dreams and awakens and time is the insurmountable'] and 'person' [the pudgala BuddhistBuddhist tradition, whose
distinguishing feature is their acceptance of the existence of an entity which
is similar to - although not - a self]. all originate from this knowledge. This
knowledge is the intrinsic nature of all there is and it also exists as
illusory forms. [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992 123-4. The glosses in
square brackets are those offered by the Yogaratnamàla yrm commentary]
The Yogaratnamàla
attempts to explain non-orthodox deities as forms of Buddhas. On a text which
reads:
Nairàtmya is
marked by the seal of wrath, the yoginã Vajrà by delusion, Gaurã by malignity,
Varã by passion, Vajraóàkinã by envy, Pukkasã by wrath, ÷avarã by delusion,
Caõóàlã by malignity, óombã by passion, the other Gaurã by wrath, Caurã by
delusion, Vetàlã by malignity, Ghasmarã by passion, Bhåcarã by delusion and
Khecarã by passion
It comments:
Here wrath refers to Akùobhya,
delusion to Vairocana, malignity to Ratnasambhava, passion to Amitàbha and envy
to Amoghasiddhi
Other gods may be represented as defeated or
inferior. In the VajrabhairavaVajrabhairava tantraTantra, Vvajramahàbhairava is visualised
"devouring Indra, Brahma, Mahezvara, Vishnu, the spirits, and so on"
[VMBT:38]
This does not in itself contradict earlier Buddhist doctrines [pali refs to gods]
But the hevajra tantra (FwM:107-8)
denies that these provide any higher benefits:
samastavedasiddhàntaiþ
karmaprasaraõàdibhiþ siddhir na syàd bhavec chuddhyà punarjananma bhavàntare na
ca tena vinà siddhir iha loke paratra ca na j¤àtaü yena hevajraü vyarthas
tasya pari÷ramaþ There is no accomplishment attained by following all the Vedas, siddhànta and traditions of
ritual. By following their purifications, there is rebirth in another cycle of
existence. Without this knowledge there is no accomplishment possible in this
or any other world. The effort of the one who does not know hevajra is all in vain
The yrm attempts to
explain non-orthodox deities as forms of Buddhas. On a text which reads:
nairàtmya is marked by the seal of
wrath, the yoginã vajrà by
delusion, gaurã by malignity, varã by passion,
vajraóàkinã by envy, pukkasã by
wrath, ÷avarã by delusion, caõóàlã by malignity, óombã by passion,
the other gaurã by wrath, caurã by
delusion, vetàlã by malignity, ghasmarã by
passion, bhåcarã by delusion and khecarã by
passion
the yrm comments:
here wrath refers to akùobhya,
delusion to vairocana, malignity to ratnasambhava,
passion to amitàbha and envy to amoghasiddhi
TantraTantras may justify themselves without
reference to Buddhism. They do so by highlighting their greater efficacy, in
terms of speed of liberation, ease of liberation, and the offering of magical
powers. Yet even here there is often an underlying BuddhistBuddhist element to the
scheme of legitimation, either in the goal aimed for, or in a sense that the BuddhistBuddhist underpinnings of
practice are what provide the efficacy.
Vajrayàna texts offer fast liberation. In
Tibet, this was perhaps a result of competition with the 'instant liberation'
offered by Chinese forms of Buddhism [Eliade, 1985:272]. Whatever the reason,
enlightenment in one lifetime was considered possible from the time of the yogaYoga-tantraTantras onwards [Sanderson, 1994:3]. Some
attempt is made to explain how the Tantric route to enlightenment can be so
much shorter than the non-Tantric route. It is claimed that direct
visualisation of the state of bBuddhahood removes the need for long
processes of purification [Sanderson, 1994:3]. The Yogaratnamàla has a
similar attitude YRM ch. 6:
Even for those yogis who are
constantly devoted to the practice of emanation there is no quicker means to
enlightenment than by the Application of the Vow (caryà) [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:60][11] [does skt text
match this? I'm dubious] idànãü satattvasaüniratasya yoginaþ * caryayà vinà
nàsti ÷ãghratarà bodhir iti tàm àha (Snellgrove 1959: II:119)
The vajrabhairavaVajrabhairava tantraTantra
emphasises the material benefits it can offer, in the form of magic powers,
rather more than it mentions the likelihood of liberation[12].:
'Tthe yogin who has received the
empowerment of this Vvajra-wheel
tantraTantra of Vvajramahàbhairava
will, by means of these rites, succeed in consecration, summoning, killing,
driving away, separating, immobilising; in the sword, the eye-ointment,
subterranean journeys, pills, transmutation, the elixir vitae, treasure; and in
ghosts, zombies, ghouls, male and female serpents, etc' [Siklos, 1996:27-8]
In contrast with the life of dedication and
virtue required by non-Tantric Buddhism, Vajrayàna offers liberation even for
the weak-willed, lazy or immoral. The hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra
claims that even 'pa¤cànantaryakàriõaþ......siddhyante' (those who have
committed the five ignoble deeds' accomplish). [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992: 157[13]]
What is the place of Buddhism in this
strategy of legitimation through efficacy? On one level, there is none: this
strategy sidesteps the question of whether a practice is BuddhistBuddhist or not. But in
many cases, the goal is itself BuddhistBuddhist, or the efficacy comes about because
of the BuddhistBuddhist underpinnings of
the ritual.
BuddhistBuddhist goals might include liberation from
saüsàra, or the attainment of a state of Buddhahood. A mantra in the MVTMahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi Tantra
is called 'that which reveals the arising of Buddhas in world-systems where
there are no Buddhas' [MVT: 420]
There is also a role for the ethical
teachings of non-Tantric Buddhism, which are adopted not for their own sake,
but as a means to success in the performance of rituals:
The mantrin who bathes, confesses his sins, who is devoted to solitude. and imagines the mudra and garland of letters will accomplish steadfast attainments. [MVT: 415. See also MVT:421]The same text [MVT:424] specifies
requirements for trainees: "They should have great faith, be very pure,
exert themselves in the Dharma, be of noble lineage and be highly
motivated".
Confession is, in the same way, adapted from
earlier Buddhism and tailored to the end of increasing ritual efficacy:
'First of all, you should confess
each of your sins with this ritual: "May all the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
think of me! I, [name], confess in the presence of all the Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas all those sins, those unwholesome deeds which I have done, caused
to be done, or have consented to be done in this and earlier lives, while
wandering in samsara, from now until I reside in the core of
enlightenment!" This should be recited a second and a third time.' [MVT:
417]
Stark contradiction between Tantric practice
and orthodox doctrine is justified, and even praised, in several ways.
Considering the issue in terms of the history and development of tantrism
[check: is that what he's taking about?] Tantrism, Snellgrove terms these
contradictions 'reversals' [1987:125]. His basic approach is followed by
several other scholars [e.g. Gellner, 1992] In contrast, Mircea Eliade's focus
is on the mystical experience involved in Tantric ritual. He analyses the use
of contradiction as a 'coincidentia oppositorum'. A third justification,
comes from NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna. This time the
angle is theological, and the theories are the concepts of the satyadvàya (two
levels of truth) and 'skillful means'. Developed by nàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna, these became
major aspects of Vajrayàna thought. These three perspectives - Sanderson's
historical, Eliade's mystical, and NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna's theological doctrinal - overlap in
their sphere of application: they all explain how Vajrayàna can embrace its
conflict with orthodoxy. But the theories do not contradict each other. If we
consider them in terms of the strategies of legitimation they imply, it emerges
that they justify practices in different ways. These three justifications are
not mutually exclusive, but can coexist in the thought - or the religious
experience - of the Tantric adept. From Sanderson's standpoint, the
justification would be historical, and textually based [not sure about this] :
it is about how what harms inferior schools can aid those at a higher level of
awareness. [hmmm]. For
Eliade, the justification is at an individual level, and is more concerned with
efficacy: the adept has faith in Vajrayàna because, through the coincidentia
oppositorum, there is offers him a profound religious experience. In NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna's thought, the
justification is a theoretical and doctrinaltheological one:
Vajrayàna is a further level of a dialectic between conventional and ultimate
truth, where neither the Tantric nor the orthodox level are necessarily true,
but are 'skillful means' leading the follower gradually closer to
enlightenment.
The term 'reversal' may be taken from David
Snellgrove, but the idea is not uniquely his. David Gellner reaches a similar
conclusion in his research into modern Tantric practices in Nepal, and quotes
M. Allen's assessment that Vajrayàna is:
"based on a
simple inversion of orthodox monastic Buddhism - sex in place of celibacy, long
hair instead of shaven pates, indulgence instead of abstinence, drunkenness
instead of sobriety [quoted in Gellner, 1992:321]
Taking the question first from this perspective
of 'reversals', it is easy to find examples of practices being justified
because they reverse earlier ideas. In the hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra,
this is explained by the medical idea that the cure is similar to the cause:
Iif an ordinary man who does not know
the nature of poison eats it, he falls senseless. But the one who is devoid of
delusion knowing the truth destroys the affliction. Similarly, those who know
the means for release and have been diligent in the hevajraHevajra practices are neither
gripped by ignorance etc. nor by the bondage of delusion and so on. [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:229]
The same idea occurs elsewhere in the tantraTantra, combined again with
theis theory of homeopathic
medicine,
that the cure is similar to the cause. It begins with a general statement, perhaps proverbial, in favour of reversals:
'Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain
thereby release from the bonds of existence.' Hence 'By passion the world is bound, by passion
too it is released', and this is justified by a medical analogy:
'those things by which evil men are
bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of
existence. By passion the world is bound, by passion too it is
released'
y
yenaiva
viùakhaõóena mriyante sarvajantavaþ tenaiva viùatattvajõo viùeõa sphoñayed
viùaü
By using that very poison, a tiny amount of which would kill any
living being, the one who knows the nature of poisons dispels the poison using
that very poison
yathà vàtagçhãtasya màùabhakùyaü pradãyate vàtena hanyate vàtaü
viparãtauùadhikalpanàt bhavaþ ÷uddho bhàaavenaiva vikalpapratikalpanàt
Just as the one who is afflicted by flatulence is given beans to
eat, for afflictions caused by wind are destroyed by wind by homeopathic medicine,
similarly phenomenal existence is purified by utilising phenomenal existence
itself, utilising notions to counter notions. [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992: 171]
The tantraTantra goes on to give further examples of
the cure being similar to the cause: removing water from the ear, and treating
burns with fire.
Let us now turn to the ideas of Mircea Eliade
[1969, 1985]. Eliade is concerned not just with Buddhism, but with all the
world's religions. He attempts to find the themes which underlie the growth or
decay of religions both in India and elsewhere, as part of a "dialectic of
the sacred" leading over time to improved religious experiences. Eliade's
analysis emphasises the development of syncretism, mysticism, and religious
practice through this dialectic process. While Eliade's enthusiasm for
mysticism is a welcome counterpart to those who see tantrismTantrism as an obscene
aberration to be glossed over, it is also clear that some of his theories are
fairly controversial. Both his view of religion improving over time, and his
view that mysticism is the central aspect of religion, have been strenuously
critiqued [e.g. Phillips, 1986]. But, without accepting Eliade's overall
thesis, it is still possible to make use of his concept of the
"coincidentia oppositorum" This term is drawn from Christian theology
in early modern Europe, in particular from the work of Nicholas Cusa [Rennie,
1998]. It refers to a union
of paradoxical ideas. While conflicting at a mundane, logical level, the adept
can reconcile them through faith and religious practices. Eliade finds
this theme in several areas of Indian religion and philosophy. It underlies, in
his view, the duality of puruùa and prakçti found in saïkhya [1969:14], the
breathing exercises of Hhatha
yogaYoga [1969:270] and the
'middle path' of Buddhism [1969:163]. He vigorously applies the concept to tantrismTantrism, which, he argues,
consists of "the techniques of meditation and the rituals aiming at the
realisation of the coincidentia oppositorum at all levels of existence"
[Eliade, 1985:295]. Thus, he claims that
Most of the excesses, cruelties,
and aberrations referred to as 'Tantric orgies' spring, in the last analysis,
from the same traditional metaphysics, which refused to define ultimate reality
otherwise than as the coincidentia oppositorum. [Eliade, 1969:272]
Eliade is here discussing tantrismTantrism in general, rather
than Vajrayàna specifically. He finds the union of opposites in the
juxtaposition of ÷akti with ÷iva, praj¤a with upàya, sun with moon, day with
night, feminine with masculine, and passive with active. These pairings, and
many others, do indeed occur in the buddhistBuddhist tantraTantras, but they are of limited interest
here. Perhaps they contribute to a religious experience, which
justifies the religion in the eyes of the mystic, but that theme is too large
and complex to examine here. But in Vajrayàna, most of the 'excesses, cruelties
and aberrations' are contrasts to orthodox Buddhism. In other words, the coincidentia
oppositorum is an explanation for the opposition between the orthodox and the Tantric Buddhism. If Eliadeot's understanding
of the coincidentia oppositorum is correct, the conflicts between the two
doctrines could give rise to a mystical experience. In this way the
contradiction would not only be rendered harmless, but would help to justify
and legitimiser Vajrayàna.
Yet a consideration of Buddhism in a longer
historical framework shows not just the coincidentia oppositorum, but its
mirror image, the differentiation of the seemingly identical. This strategy for
conflict resolution has recently been examined in several Indian traditions by
Bethia Beadman, who termed it a 'dissolution of duality' [Beadman:2003]. In
particular, a play between duality and non-duality is part of the legitimation
technique of most forms of Buddhism. The same techniques apply not just for the
description of the universe, but in every aspect of doctrine. If an earlier
school has proclaimed the unity of two things, a later school will argue that
they are really distinct. If an earlier school has proclaimed that two things
are separate, a later school will argue that they are the same. Thus, through
the history of Buddhism - and religions linked to it - we find an alternation between
dualist and non-dualist rhetoric.
The third
perspective is that of NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna. Revered by many as a 'second
Buddha', NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna provided the
intellectual foundations for the madhyamaka school. In particular, he developed
a theory of the satyadvaya, or two levels of truth: conventional (saüvçti-sat)
and ultimate (paramàrtha-sat). He writes in the målamadhyamakakàrikà:
dve satye samupà÷ritya buddhànàü
dharmade÷anà | lokasaüvçtisatyaü ca satyaü ca paramàrthataþ || ye 'nayor na
vijànanti vibhàgaü satyayor dvayoþ | te tattvaü na vijànanti gambhãraü
buddha÷àsane || vyavahàram anà÷ritya paramàrtho na de÷yate | paramàrtham
anàgamya nirvàõaü nàdhigamyate [MMK: 24.8-10] 'A doctrine relying on two levels
of truth is taught by the Buddhas: the conventional/worldly truth, and the
ultimate truth. Those who do not understand the division of the two truths do
not understand the profound essence of the Buddha's teaching. The ultimate
truth is not taught without a foundation of conventional truth; without turning
to the ultimate, nirvàõa is not achieved.[14]'
[this goes into a footnote]
The
We can see all these processes at work in a
passage from the hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra.
The vinaya-piñaka of the pàliPàli canon had laid down four pàràjikas
(defeats). These were the ultimate sins for monks, those which would destroy
the merit of the monk, and would bring the saïgha into disrepute. Committing
one of these sins would mean automatic dismissal of the monk from the saïgha.
They were sexual intercourse, theft, homicide and falsely claiming spiritual
merit [Gethin, 1998:89]. The hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra
demands that initiates commit the pàràjikas, providing what Snellgrove would
understand as a reversal:
pràõina÷ ca tvayà ghàtyà
vgaktavyaü ca mçùàvacaþ adatta¤ ca tvayà gràhyam sevanaü parayoùitaþ [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992 192]
You should kill creatures, tell lies, steal what has not been given, and
fornicate with other men's wives
Having produced such a shocking contradiction
of some fundamental principles of Buddhism, the tantraTantra then offers a
synthesis:
ekacittaü pràõivadhaü proktaü
pràõa cittàm yato matam lokàn uttàrayiùyàmã mçùàvàda¤ ca ÷abditam yoùicchukram
adatta¤ ca paradàràþ svàbhasundarã focus of thought is the kiling of creatures,
for thought is life; to vow to save all living beings is the speaking of lies;
the sexual fluid of the woman is that which is not given and others' wives are
the beautiful ones who are one's own
For Eliade, this would be a reconciliation of
a paradoxical situation: the practitioner is aware of both following and
transgressing the Buddhism. This, if Eliade is correct, leads to a religious
experience, and thus gives a justification through spiritual efficacy. In NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna's terms, the play
between the Tantric practice and the orthodox doctrine it contravenes would be
one of skillful means: neither statement need be true, so long as they allow
spiritual progression.
Furthermore, the YRMYogaratnamàla
commentary offers gloss which provides some theological background to the
passage, while removing a transgressive element from the text. yoùicchukram is
'non-dual knowledge', and is 'adattam' (not given) because it is 'attained by
means of a non-dual emanation' [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992 192-3]. It is hard to
know exactly what doctrine is referred to by 'non-dual knowledge'
(advayaj¤àna). It could imply the teachings of the advaita vedànta school.
Alternatively, it could be a reference to yogàcàraYogàcàra Buddhism, in which
a knowledge of non-duality is achieved by the realisation that the universe
consists merely of mental projections.
My finalnext concern is symbolism. This occurs
in texts, mantras, mandalamaõóalas, visualisations of deities or other
practices. Although each of these has specific characteristics and functions -
mantras function as spells, maõóalas operate as mnemonic techniques, texts explain
theory and doctrinecommentaries 'spin' some root-text to a particular
audience - their techniques of symbolism are very similar. A link is made
between two or more ideas through similarity of sound or appearance, through
etymology or numerology, through symbolic links adopted from other religions,
or simply through a tradition which equates two symbols. This allows the same
action, word or image to bear more than one interpretation, and so can be
understood or explained on multiple levels.
The significance of this is understood by
Eliade in psychological terms. Thinking primarily of Hindu tantrismTantrism, he writes:
In general, symbolism brings
about a universal porousness, opening beings and things to transobjective
meanings. But in tantrismTantrism 'intentional language' becomes a
mental exercise, forms an integral part of sadhana. The disciple must
constantly experience the mysterious process of homologization and convergence
that is at the root of cosmic manifestation, for he himself has now become a
microcosm and, by 'awakening' them, he must become conscious of all the forces
that, on various planes, periodically create and absorb the universes. [Eliade,
1969:250-1]
Eliade notwithstanding, there is little need
to resort to ideas of 'cosmic manifestation' to understand the power of
symbolism. The same idea could be understood in psychological terms (for
example, through the term 'apophenia', which refers to the "unmotivated
seeing of connections" accompanied by a "specific experience of an
abnormal meaningfulness" [Karl Conrad, quoted in Brugger, 2001:14]), or
through numerous works on literary theory (for example the "symbolic
code" of Barthes). Considered through any of these lenses, it is clear
that such a highly-developed system of symbolism has the power to induce
powerful mental and emotional experiences, which can in itself provide a
justification for the religion.
If this is true for symbolism in general, it
is equally true for symbolism which combines motifs from Tantric and
non-Tantric Buddhism. But this latter form also legitimises Vajrayàna in other wsays. Through
including symbolic links to earlier forms of Buddhism, Vajrayàna can prove its buddhistBuddhist roots, and appeal
to BuddhistBuddhist theology and
soteriology. If these images can be simultaneously interpreted in more Tantric
senses, Vajrayàna need not change its non-buddhist elements to
demonstrate its orthodoxycan also demonstrate the consistency of its
practice with orthodox doctrine. . Furthermore, the use of orthodox explanations
provides a justification for the Tantric practices themselves. IFurther, it has a didactic
function: in performing rituals rich in buddhistBuddhist symbolism, the
disciple cannot help but imbibe some buddhistBuddhist theology. More importantly, he can
experience, and so become convinced of, the unity between different levels of
Buddhism.
It is particularly appropriate for reconciling two belief-systems, because the reader
or listener will understand the meanings appropriate to his own background and
inclinations, while remaining oblivious to those intended for other schools.
This is not simply another form of the reversal
or coincidentia oppositorum, because frequently the Tantric and non-Tantric
explanations do not contradict each other. Sometimes one level explains
theology and another explains practice. At other times one meaning provides a
support or justification for another. This may be the case in mantras, for
example, where the overall mantra is justified in terms of its effects, but
where words and phrases might draw their power from the såtras in which they
were originally written.
I first consider some of the general
techniques used to develop symbolism: etymology, numerology, terminology. I
then look at the specific aspects of mantras, maõóalas, and meditation
techniques
Numerology is used to some extent in most
Tantric texts, but is particularly prominent in the MVTMahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi Tantra.
Here, each number has many resonances, which will arise in the mind of the
disciple when he comes across the number in a ritual context. Three, for
example, would represent the three samayas of knowledge of phenomena,
non-conceptualisation and non-objectification [MVT:373]. This is a doctrine
developed in the MVTMahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi Tantra
itself. Three would also refer to the triple refuge in Buddha, dharma and
saïgha [MVT:375], which dates back to the pàliPàli canon. It refers to
the three bodies of the Buddha. This is a theory developed by the yogàcàraYogàcàra school, in which
the Buddha has three emanations (the dharmakàya, sambhogakàya and nirmànakaya).
Then there are the three ways, the paths of ÷ràvakas, pratyekabuddhas and
bodhisattvas. This in itself is a syncretic list - when the MVTMahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi Tantra
praises 'Vairocana...who has completely perfected the three ways' [MVT:413] it
is reconciling schools of Buddhism which differ on whether the aim should be to
become an arhat, a pratyeka Buddha (a Buddha who does not teach after his
enlightenment) or a full Buddha in the model of ÷akyamuni. Thus when the number
three is mentioned, a disciple would be aware of a large amount of buddhistBuddhist theory. A similar
list could be made for the connotations of many other numbers. The same
technique is used in the hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra,
which requires visualisation of things associated with the number four: the
four noble truths are joined by the four moments, the four principles (self,
divinity, mantra and knowledge), the four joys, and the four doctrinal schools
(FwM 16-17). In other cases he reference is less explicit. When the Gguhyasamàja tantraTantra
says that
"he should contemplate vividly at the tip of his nose an eight-petalled
lotus" [Wayman, 1977:27], we should perhaps understand an allusion to the
eight bodhisattvas, and to the eightfold path.
Nirvacana is a tradition of semantic analysis which
grew out of Yaska's Nirukta. It is explained, and applied to Tantric discourse,
by Eivind Kahrs [1999].
It justifies the meanings of words or names on the basis of similarities, derivations from
roots, and mythological stories. We can see it in used to Buddhicise a listing of
Hindu gods:
vairocanàkùobhyàmoghà÷ ca ratnàrolika
ca sàttvikaþ brahmà viùõuþ ÷ivaþ sarvo vibuddhas tattvam ucyate brahmà
nirvçtito buddhaþ viùaõàd viùõur ucyate ÷ivaþ sadà sukalyàõàt sarvaþ sarvàtmani
sthitaþ satsukhatvena tattvaü
ca vibuddho bodhanàt rateþ dehe saübhavatãty asmàd devateti nigadyate
The deities [which are aspects of the undifferentiated] are
known as Vairocana, Akùobhya, Amogha, Ratna, ârolika, Sàttvika, Brahmà, Viùõu,
øiva, Sarva, Vibuddha and
Tattva. From being the release, brahmà is the enlightened one (budhaþ). Viùõu
is so called because of entering. øiva is so called because of always being
auspicious; Sarva, because of abiding in all things; tattva because of being
true bliss; Vibuddha because of
the awareness of erotic bliss. the deity originates in the body and so it is
called devatà
The equations of gods with ideas here are all based
on nirvacana. 'Vibuddha', for example, means 'awareness', and, in light of the
code-language discussed below, could well have carried connotations of
awareness of bliss. 'Tattva' means 'truth' or 'essence', and is also used by religions such as sàükhya to
refer to the fundamental levels of existence, or basic components of the
universe. Bliss, as explained below[15], is considered equivalent to ÷unyata, and so could be considered
a tattva in this sense.
BuddhistBuddhist terms were given completely new
meanings as part of the secret language of the tantraTantras. In part, this
functioned as a code, keeping some of the more transgressive elements of tantrismTantrism concealed from the
uninitiated. But, like other symbolism, it also served a deeper purpose of
legitimation by linking the Tantric and the non-Tantric. Shahidullah
[1928:9-15] provides a useful list of some of the equivalences used. Although
he is concerned not with Vajrayàna itself, but with the later 'dohàkoùa' texts
written by kàõha and saraha, much of the terminology is the same. Many other
scholars give less systematic consideration to the meanings of terms as they
occur [e.g. La Vallee Poussin, 1898; Siklos, 1996]. Here, I list only a few of these terms, and the
significance of their multiple meanings.
'Padma' literally means 'lotus', which is a
common theme in Buddhism and in BuddhistBuddhist art, where the Buddha is often given
a lotus-seat. In the dohàkoùa it is interpreted as bhaga (vulva) [Shahidullah,
1928:9]. This meaning can also be seen, for example, in the famous mantra 'oü
maõi padme hum', which can be understood at one level as a reference to sexual
intercourse (maõi can refer to the penis). Vajra, which gives its name to
Vajrayàna, can refer to a particular ritual object, or can mean 'diamond' or
'thunderbolt'. It can also represent ÷unyata [VMBT: 28] or the penis
(a meaning foregrounded in phrases such as 'vajràbha saüyogah' [Pa¤cakrama
3.40]).
The Buddha himself is given secret meanings.
According to the hevajraHevajra tantraTantra, 'bhagavàn [i.e. the
Buddha] is of the nature of semen' [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992 105]. For kàõha (or more
precisely, for one of his commentators), bodhicitta is equivalent to
'samvçta-spanda-råpa-÷ukra' (semen, in the form of covered activity?????)
[Shahidullah, 1928: 11]. In other words, 'sahaje bodhicittam jàyate ÷ukram
utpadyate' (???when an innate Buddha-mind is born,
then semen arises) [[Shahidullah, 1928: 11]. He The Buddha is also linked
to more Tantric gods - the Yyogaratnamàla
(103) glosses bhagavàn as 'hevajraHevajramårtir vajradhara' (vajradhara in the
form of hevajraHevajra), and describes hevajraHevajra as
'sarvabuddhaikavigrahaþ' (the single form which is all of the Buddhas) [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992 126].
[any need for this para?] The YRMYogaratnamàla explains
bhagavan as a derivation from bhaga, which in turn is explained as 'lordliness,
abundance, grace, excellence, splendour and meaningful application of
knowledge' (FwM 4). The same argument is later made in the hevajratantra itself (FwM
56-7):bhago 'syàstãti buddhasya bhagavàn iti kathyate bhagàni ùaóvidhàny àhur
ai÷varyàdiguõàkhilàþ [need to retranslate this bit - compare with Snellgrove]
The interpretation of mahàsukham (great joy,
especially sexual pleasure) as ÷unyata [Sanderson, 1994:2] provides a
justification for rituals of maithuna (intercourse). karuõà, or compassion, is
redefined as equivalent to existence [Shahidullah, 1928: 13]. Thus, presumably,
the route to escaping existence is by destroying compassion, which may justify
certain ritual practices. NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna's concept of ÷unyata (emptiness) is
alluded to in Tantric works by the term makàsukham (great joy) [Sanderson,
1994:2]. [so? shows
nibbana is fun!] The YRMYogaratnamàla
glosses 'dharma' as that revealed in tantraTantras, seemingly excluding exoteric ideas
of dharma [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992 167] It
might be thought that there is a danger of over-interpretation here. The hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra
praises Tantric practise 'ekavçkùe' (meaning under an isolated tree, according
to the yrtYogaratnamàla). Is this an echo
of the enlightenment of the Buddha under such a tree? It may seem tenuous, and
it is unlikely to have been the main meaning of the text, but even if the
allusion only reminded a few disciples of the enlightenment of the Buddha, it
still served a purpose of legitimation. Similarly, the term chakra is frequently
used in tantraTantras. In the hevajraHevajra tantraTantra [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:191] it
is described as
'purifying sense objects, etc' (viùayàdãmàü vi÷odhanam), and it appears in the
name of the Kalachakra tantraTantra.
It brings to mind numerous buddhistBuddhist connotations: the sermon on the
turning of the wheel, the eightfold path (often represented as an eight-spoked
wheel). But not all the connotations here are buddhistBuddhist These
redefinitions of BuddhistBuddhist terminology were interconnected with
the secret terms used in other parts of tantrismTantrism. So semen (÷ukra)
and menstrual fluid (rajas) are linked to the moon and the sun respectively,
and thence to the left and right nostrils (as channels for vital energy, or
pràõa)
*terms to connect to other systems* Other
redefinitions of terminology were to reconcile Buddhism with the other systems
underlying tantrismTantrism. So kamala (also
meaning lotus) was interpreted as the uùõãùa-kamala, or 'lotus of the crown of
the head'. In yogic meditation, this is a bundle of nerves at the top of the
head. It
is noteworthy that both these cases hinge on ambiguity of the terms used. In
the case of kamala, a specific meaning (head-lotus) is inferred from a general
and ambiguous word (lotus). In the case of bindu, the word usually carries both
meanings. This linguistic ambiguity is an appropriate tool for reconciling two
belief-systems, because the reader or listener will understand the meanings
appropriate to his own background and inclinations, while remaining oblivious
to those intended for other schools.
Mantras are central to Tantrism,
to the extent that Tantric Buddhism is often termed mantranayaþ or
mantracaryànayaþ (the way of mantras, or the way of the practice of mantras)
[Sanderson, 1994:3]. They are peculiar in that they require to be memorised
and then repeated, often many hundreds or thousands of times. They are also
very short. The consequence of these two features is that mantras contain a
great amount of meaning compressed into a tiny space, requiring detailed exegesis not only of the words, but of
every letter.
Mantras are central to tantrism, to the extent
that Tantric Buddhism is often termed mantranayaþ or mantracaryànayaþ (the way
of mantras, or the way of the practice of mantras) [Sanderson, 1994:3]. MantrasUnfortunately, they
are thereforeoften
very hard to analyse from the texts we possess, which are the secret code
(saüdhàya bhàùà) without the exegesis explanation that would be provided by an oral
tradition. Many seem to be little more than jumbles of recurring syllables
(sometimes referred to as guhyatara, or 'secret' syllables). Moreover, many of
the elements are non-buddhistBuddhist in origin. The frequently-occurring
syllables khañ, phañ and jahi can be traced back to the brahmanas, svàhà can be
found in the vedas and upaniùads, and oü is important in many religions,
including Buddhism [Poussin, 1898:123]. They have developed non-buddhistBuddhist senses: for
example, svàhà is a personification of an offering, whit six limbs
corresponding to the vedaïgas. Moreover, it is apparent that many mantras were
copied between ÷aiva and buddhistBuddhist tantraTantras. For all these
reasons, we cannot expect to find any key with which to unpack the meaning of
every buddhistBuddhist mantra.
Nevertheless, the mantras are not random, and have some form of logic, both in
themselves and as schemes of legitimation. As Poussin writes [1898:123],
"Poss‚der et savoir les mots, n'est-ce pas comprendre, fixer, s'assimiler
les id‚es?"'. [check the
mantra he gives as eg] In this function of reminding the adept of
basic doctrinal points, a mantra performs the same function as the lists
interspersed throughout the pàliPàli canon. At a basic level, a mantra may
highlight key features of Buddhism. For example the mantra "oü
÷unyata-j¤àna-vajra-svabhàvàtmako `ham" is repeatedly found in the
pa¤cakrama [Poussin, 1898:123]. It might be translated 'oü, my own nature is
the diamond which is knowledge of the void". 'ø÷unyata' is a reference to NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna's theory of
emptiness, knowledge of which would be reinforced by repetition of the mantra. The 'spell of intrinsic purity'
found in the Vajrabhairava Tantra is close to being a meditation on a
Buddhist principle. It reads, "svabhava zuddha sarvadharma svabhava
zuddho'ham" (all dharmas are intrinsically pure, I am intrinsically pure)
At a lower level, the mantras can be given a
Buddhist analysis letter by letter. The VajrabhairavaVajrabhairava tantraTantra also gives a buddhist twist to
letters, visualising visualises A as the seed for a solar disc
from which lights emanate and invite tathàgatas and bodhisattvas [VMBT:37-8]. The 'spell of intrinsic purity'
found in the Vajrabhairavatantra is close to
being a meditation on a buddhist principle. It reads,
"svabhava zuddha sarvadharma svabhava zuddho'ham" (all dharmas are
intrinsically pure, I am intrinsically pure) Many mantras use Buddhist phrases At a
lower level, the mantras can be given a buddhist analysis
letter by letter. According to the pa¤cakrama [11.42, quoted in
Poussin, 1898:90], "akàrodde÷akam j¤anam buddhasya" (knowledge of the
Buddha is signified by the letter A). This form of analysis is taken to an
extreme by the Mahavairocanabhisambodhi tantraTantra,
which, stating that "the letter is the deity" [MVT:370], develops a
detailed exposition of how letters arise from each other. Here again the
explanation raises explicitly BuddhistBuddhist themes - the letter A is explained
as 'the seed-syllable of the eternal non-arising of phenomena' and as
'emptiness', and it is said that 'through it liberation will be attained'
Maõóalas,
or ritual diagrams, assimilate and justify themselves by means of buddhistBuddhist symbols and terms
in much the same way as mantras do. I will consider three approaches to legitimation in
maõóalas: seeing
Buddhist entities, understanding Buddhism in order to visualise a maõóala, and
visualising something non-Buddhist, which is then understood as code for
something Buddhist. A particular form of this last approach is the use of maõóalas as memory aides, by
attaching points of doctrine to aspects of a maõóala.
The first approach Again, this can
be achieved by the
incorporation of names alone:
Then VvajrapàAni, the lord of the secret ones,
bowed down at the feet of the Bhagavat and tehn asked him this, 'Bhagavat! What
is the name of this Maõóalaandala?'
When he had asked this, the Bhagavat said to VajrapàAni! The name of this Maõóalaandala is 'That
which reveals the arising of Buddhas in world systems where there are no
Buddhas' [MVT:420]
Alternatively, a tantraTantra (or, more likely, a
commentary), may offer a more systematic explanation. For example the sona÷ri
commentary explains that the four gates into a maõóalaandala in the VajrabhairavaVajrabhairava tantraTantra
symbolise emptiness, signlessness, wishlessness and effortlessness, while its
recesses represent the four meditative states.
The second approach, where Uunderstanding of Buddhism can be ais a prerequisite for
visualisation or other ritual activityis exemplified in the Vajrabhairava
Tantra:
'one should visualise the deity [vajrabhairavaVajrabhairava] by the prior
understanding of the selflessness of all phenomena, so first one makes all
phenomena selfless in nature by reciting the spell of intrinsic purity' [VMBT:
37]
What is visualised may be the process of
enlightenment: "one brings sentient beings to maturation and places them
in the state of enlightenment" [VMBTVMT:38]
Finally, there are those cases where Tthe iconography of the
figures visualised owes little to Buddhism, in most cases.
This does not prevent the process of visualisation being essentially buddhistBuddhist, given that the
surface appearance of the god is only a minor aspect of visualisation. Consider
the visualisation of Vajramahàbhairava. Outwardly, there is nothing buddhistBuddhist about this god,
whose iconography is seemingly drawn from Ddurgà cults involving worship of the
buffalo Mmahiùa.
Vajramahàbhairava is, according to the root text of the VajrabhairavaVajrabhairava tantraTantra:
Tterrible indeed, roaring 'PHAT',
adorned with skull ornaments, with sixteen legs, naked, ithyphallic, left legs
extended, with a great belly, with hair standing upright, causing great fear,
roaring 'pheüM',
with thirty four arms and holding a fresh elephant skin
Yet the commentator provides a buddhistBuddhist gloss for this:
Hhe is ornamented with skull ornaments
because he is born from the sphere of dharmas...his sixteen legs are the
complete ascertainment (T rnam par dag pa) of the sixteen emptinesses...he is
naked because he understands without obscuration all dharmas....he is
ithyphallic because he becomes the great bliss...his left legs are extended
because all dharmas are individually penetrated by emptiness...His hair
standing up is a sign of his freedom from suffering....The thirty-four arms are
the complete ascertainment of the thirty-four aspects of bodhi
Following the exegesis offered by the
commentator, the outwardly non-buddhistBuddhist aspects of vajrabhairavaVajrabhairava become little
more than an aide-memoire for a compilation of buddhistBuddhist philosophy. This
interpretation of maõóalas as memory techniques is important, and helps to
explain the divergence between an outwardly terrifying iconography and a
gentler inner doctrine. The more dramatic the appearance, the easier it will be
to visualise and remember.
[is this paragraph too self-indulgent?] In
this way, the maõóala is analogous to the "ars memorativa"
visualisation techniques used by Roman orators such as Cicero and Quintilian,
or renaissance scholars such as Robert Fludd and Giordano Bruno. Perhaps a
closer analogy could be found in other religions which placed a high value on
the use of images to assist memory of doctrine: medieval Catholicism or the
mysticism of the Jewish Kabala. In all these traditions, the image visualised
is of secondary importance to the doctrines underlying it. In other words,
comparison to other traditions hints at the explanation in the commentary being
more important than the description in the root text, at least from a mnemonic
perspective.
Ritual use of buddhistBuddhist symbols functions
in much the same way as visualisation of them, but with the added immediacy of
physical objects. The hevajraHevajra
tantraTantra
(Sanderson, 1959, vol. S591:65)
expects a yogin to adorn his head with 'pa¤cabuddhakapalàni' (the skulls of the
five Buddhas). This image, presumably originating from the Kkàpàlipàlika form of ø÷aivism, is
interpreted by the YRMYogaratnamàla
[S592Sanderson, 1959, vol. 2:120]
as 'akùobhyàdipa¤cabuddhasvabhàvàni kalpàni' (skulls whose svabhàva is the five
Buddhas beginning with Aakùobhya).
Here we could perhaps translate svabhàva as 'underlying nature': the skulls
themselves are presumably undistinguished, but in a ritual context absorb the
nature of the Buddhas. [compare this to eivind's goat/cabbage thing?]
The incorporation of philosophy into Tantric
rituals has a triple function. Firstly, it is an instruction in, or statement
of, the philosophy concerned. Secondly it demonstrates, to participants and to
observers, that the ritual is in accordance with BuddhistBuddhist cosmology. Through
this demonstration of orthodoxy, the ritual is both made acceptable to BuddhistBuddhists, and given a
theoretical underpinning which can help to explain its efficacy. Thirdly, the
incorporation of particular aspects of Madhyamaka philosophy may increase the
religious experience of the ritual.
Sanderson [1994:2] writes that "
doctrine is written into the text of ritual itself", and his approach is
reiterated by others. Yael Bentor [Bentor, 1996; Sparham. 1998] examines the
incorporation of philosophy into a modern Tibetan ritual to consecrate a stupa.
She finds, for example, use of NàgàrjunaNàgàrjuna's distinction between conventional
truth (saüvçti-sat) and ultimate truth paramàrtha-sat[16].
[footnote:
this is analysed further in the 'reversals' section] This division
is incorporated into modern rituals of Tibetan tantrismTantrism, using the
equivalent terms dam-tshigs sems-pa (conventional truth) and ye-shes sems-pa
(ultimate truth). Bentor finds that this is given a ritual meaning, in the
process of consecration of a stupa. The statue itself is dam-tshigs sems-pa,
while the thing symbolised by it is ye-shes sems-pa. [significance of this: philosophy
enhances religion]
More generally, Bentor explains the ritual as
a synthesis of pieces taken from a variety of sources in earlier texts. In the
words of a reviewer [Sparham, 1998]:
Tibetan ritualists feel
comfortable with any number of different strategies which tradition has deemed
efficacious, and present day rituals bring them all into one larger ritual
with- out feeling any contradiction.
[insert Sanderson bit here, on yogàcàra]
Commentaries function in much the same way as
the contexts above, in terms of symbolism. One of their peculiarities is that
they are often providing a key to their root text, by introducing more levels
of symbolism. Moreover, the symbolism they add is often slanted towards
offering orthodox buddhistBuddhist explanations for transgressive
rituals, and so making them less illegitimate.
He does not create discord means
he does not stir up crude erotic play. He eats meat means he consumes the
notion of the self, that is, he makes it non-0substantial. He drinks liquor means
he drinks the nectar of Great Bliss arising from the union...Faeces refers to
the Form component of the aggregate of phenomenal awareness; urine to the sensation
component; menstrual blood to the conceptualisation component and semen to the
component of the awareness of phenomena [FwM[Farrow/Menon, 1992:208]
In the pages above, I have outlined some of
the main methods by which BuddhistBuddhist texts demonstrate their legitimacy -
by their symbolism, their reversals of doctrine, their claims of speed and
efficacy, their attempts to fit within the canon and within schemes of the
schools of Buddhism, and by simply talking about buddhistBuddhist ideas. My approach
has been almost entirely textual, and has been limited to the texts of, and
commentaries on, a few basic tantraTantras. A more complete approach would
require the consideration of other textual evidence which bears the influence
of Vajrayàna's search for legitimacy: the corpus of Sshaiva tantrismTantrism, mythology,
popular stories, histories and hagiographies. It would require an analysis of
the development of compilations of texts, especially in Tibet and China. It
would require an anthropological study of the ideas and practices of BuddhistBuddhists both now and, by
extrapolation, in the past. It would require an attempt to reconstruct the
social and intellectual milieu within which the quest for legitimacy was taking
place. Such an investigation is well beyond the scope of this dissertation, and
must await the work of others.
VMT: Vajramahabhairavatantra MMK:
Målamadhyamakakàrikà MVT: mahavairocanàbhisam??? -not Malinivijayottaratantra
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MMK
= Målamadhyamakakàrikà
·
MVT:
Mahàvairocanàbhisaübodhi Tantra.
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·
Phillips,
Stephen H, 1886: '"A
history of religious ideas by Mircea Eliade'"
(review),
Philosophy East and West v.36 (April, 1886), pp 177-184.
http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew33346.htm
·
Valee-Poussin,
Louis de la:1898, Bouddhisme,
etudes et materiaux, London (not
read)
·
· Rennie, B, 1998: '"Mircea Eliade'" in Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Routledge
·
Rueggs (sp?), DS,
'64 sur
les rapports entre le Bouddhisme et le 'substrat' religieux indien et tibétain' Journal Asiatique 252 (1964): 77-95
·
Robinson,
RH and Johnson WL, 1997, The BuddhistBuddhist
religion: a historical introduction (fourth edition),. Wadsworth
·
Sanderson,
Alexis, 1994: Vajrayàna - origin and function,
unpublished manuscript.
[todo: is this published? ask eivind. also the kingship book]
·
Sanderson,
Alexis, forthcoming: Religion and the State: Initiating the Monarch in Saivism
and the BuddhistBuddhist
Way of Mantras. Unpublished manuscript
·
Shahididullah,
M, 1928: 'les chants mysterieux de kAGka et de
saraha - les dohàkoùa',. Paris:
Adrien-Maisonneuve
·
Siderits,
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Journal of BuddhistBuddhist
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·
Siklos,
B, 1996: The vajrabhairavaVajrabhairava
tantraTantras,. Trink:institute of buddhistBuddhist
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·
Singh,
J, 1982: pratyabhij¤àhçdayam,t he secret of
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·
Snellgrove,
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critical study (2 volumes). Oxford:OUP [need to get full details - 2 volumes]
· Snellgrove, David L: 1987, Indo-Tibetan
Buddhism: Indian buddhistBuddhists
and their Tibetan successors,
London: Serindia
·
Sparham,
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http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/5/sparham.htm
·
VMT:
Vajramahabhairava Tantra.
Page references are to Siklos [1996]
·
Wayman,
A: 1977, Yoga of the guhyasamàjatantra, the arcane law of forty verses - a buddhistBuddhist
tantraTantra commentary,. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidas
Perhaps the clearest
justification of transgressive rituals as a means to understanding of Buddhism
is contained in the consecration ritual of the hevajra tantra
svasaüvedyàd bhaved j¤ànaü svaparavittivarjitam
khasamaü virajaü ÷ånyaü bhàvàbhàvàtmakaü param praj¤opàyavyatimi÷raü
ràgàràgavimi÷ritam From direct personal experience arises this knowledge, free
of notions of self and other, space-like, undefiled, void, the essence of
existence and non-existence and the supreme. This knowlede is a blending of
wisdom and means and a fusion of passion and the absence of passion. [FwM 121-2]
In these words we can trace
allusions to several commonplaces of non-Tantric Buddhism. svasaüvedya, or
personal knowledge, is not an exclusively Buddhist term, by any
means. MW finds svasaüvid in the bhagavata purana meaning 'the knowledge of
one's own or the treu Essence', and svasaüvedana ('knowledge derived from one's
self') in Hemacandra's yogaֈstra, as well as in buddhist literature.
svasaüvedya, in the sense of 'inteligible only to one's self', is found in the
ràjataraügiõã, daùakumàracarita and the pa¤caràtra.
But the word svasaüvedya has much
richer and more particular associations in buddhist, and
particularly màdhyamika, philosophy, as one of the means of knowledge
(pramàna). We can see this clearly in the way that bhàvaviveka uses it in his
praj¤àpradãpa commentary on nàgàrjuna's MMK 18.9. Here, he
is defending nàgàrjuna against the charge of vitaõóà
(sophistry without the establishment of a counter-position). To do so, he
claims that tattva, in the sense of ultimate truth, was known to nàgàrjuna through direct
experience (svasaüvedya), and that that the fallability of his verbal account
of tattva is not a fault in the form of vitaõóà [Eckel 1978:331]
would be great
to find another example of this*
Here, though, the word has been
given a more specific sense. Accordign to the yogaratnamàlà
commentary:
svasaüvedyàd iti ata eva
samarasàt svasaüvedyaü j¤ànaü bhavet [Snellgrove, 1959.II:132] svasaüvedyàt:
because of the samarasaü (the 'flavour of essential similarity ritual), there
should arise knowledge which is from direct personal experience
Whereas for the madhyamikas,
personal experience was a phenomenon resulting from wisom, meditation, etc. Now
it comes from ritual sex.
**there is lots more to say about
this passage [FwM 121-2] - go back to it later!
STRATEGIES OF LEGITIMATION IN BUDDHIST TANTRISM
OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION sources consulted a summary of
existing research origins of Vajrayàna extent of Vajrayàna's divergence from
other Buddhism the need for strategies of legitimation summary of the
strategies
TALKING ABOUT BUDDHISM The use of mentioning Buddhism
Doctrines ÷unyata ontology dependent origination saïgha
ESTABLISHING CANONICITY
EFFICACY Tantric better faster more powerful magic
powers no need for virtue incorporation of Buddhism morals for ritual success
multiple paths
REVERSALS Reversals - Snellgrove's historical
explanation Coincidentia Oppositorum - Eliade's mystical explanation Satyadvaya
- Nàgàrjuna's theological explanation An
example of the strategies in operation
SYMBOLISM nature and functions of symbolism
symbolic devices numerology etymology areas of application of symbolism mantras
maõóalas visualisation rituals writing commentaries
CONCLUSION [still to be written]
[1] I use the terms 'buddhistBuddhist tantrismTantrism', ''Vajrayàna',
and 'Mmantrayàna'
interchangeably. By 'non-tantric Buddhism' and 'orthodox Buddhism' I refer to
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism with the exclusion of Vajrayàna, while by 'early
Buddhism', I mean the Hhãnayàna
religion expressed in the pàliPàli canon
[2] Of relevance to tantrismTantrism is his argument
that a 'proto-Shiva' can be found in the Indus Valley civilisation of early North
Indian
civilisation
of Mohenjo-daro
[3] These were
originally nature-spirits. . As they were absorbed into
mainstream Hindu traditions, Kubera (the leader of the yakùSas) became one of
the lokapAlas (the 'world-protectors', or gods of the directions), while other
yakSùas became vAhanas (vehicles) for
other gods. The significance of this is that an alternative name for the yakùùas is the guhyas, a
word which is also found in the title of the tantric 'guhyasamàja'. As Bolle
notes [1971:29], 'it would not be impossible to understand guhyasamàja as
'assembly of the guhyas'', at least as a secondary meaning
[4] This will be further discussed below
[5] In Hhinduism, the five nectars are usually
milk, curds, ghee, honey, and sugar. However, in this context the termp
probably means urine, faeces, semen, ovum, and brain marrow, each of which is
associated with one of the Bbuddhas
[6] in anticipation of the arguments to follow, it is worth briefly noticing some of the techniques of legitimation found here. The five nectars are given both an exoteric and an esoteric explanation, while 'non-dual knowledge' is an invocation of the yogàcàra doctrine of mind-only to show that the transgression is only at a level which has no ultimate reality
[7] I have elided some phrases which would be
less shocking to an early BuddhistBuddhist
[8] Nirvacana analysis is discussed
below, page 40]
[9] Page 19
[10] An exception is the vajrabhairava, which omits the opening. See the comments on this in Siklos [1996]
[11] Snellgrove's text [1959, vol II:119] reads 'idànãü satattvasaüniratasya yoginaþ * caryayà vinà nàsti ÷ãghratarà bodhir'
[12] Its commentators do, however, give a slightly
more enlightenment-focussed
approach spin to the text
[13] the more rigorous may be calmed by the following verse, which states that da÷aku÷alàbhyàsã....siddhyate dhruvam' (he who perseveringly practises the 10 virtues...definitely accomplishes)[ Snellgrove 1959: II:119]
[14] Nàgàrjuna's doctrine was foreshadowed in the PàliPàli canon, which
differentiates between nãtattha (having a clear meaning) and neyyattha
(requiring interpretation). Moreover, the Buddha's doctrine of the middle way
appears to use a similar style of dialectic reasoning, and division between two
opposites. For example in the kaccàyanagotta-sutta, the Buddha says
"'Everything exists,' - this, Kaccàyana, is one extreme 'Everything does not exist,' - this, Kaccàyana, is the second extreme. KaccAyana, without approaching either extreme,t he tathàgata teaches you a doctrine by the middle"
[15] Page 43
[16] This is
analysed further on page 3418